India has a rich maritime heritage and the earliest reference to maritime activities is contained in the Rig Veda. Indian mythology has numerous episodes pertaining to the ocean, the sea and the rivers, with belief that mankind has benefitted from the wealth of seas and ocean. There is plenty of evidence derived from Indian literature, art, sculptures, painting and archeology to establish existence of Indian maritime traditions.
A study of the country's maritime history reveals that the Indian sub-continent exercised supremacy over the Indian Ocean from very early times up to the 13th century. Indians took to the sea for trade and commerce rather than for political ends. Thus, the period up to about 16th century witnessed peaceful sea-borne commerce, cultural and traditional exchange between countries. The Indian Ocean has always been regarded as an area of great significance and India is central to this Ocean.
The Early Days (3000 – 2000 BC)
The beginning of India's maritime history dates back to 3000 BC. During this time, the inhabitants of Indus Valley Civilisation had maritime trade link with Mesopotamia. The excavation at Mohenjo-Daro and Harappa has revealed ample evidence that maritime activities flourished during this period.
The discovery of a dry-dock at Lothal (about 400 km Southwest of Ahmedabad) gives an insight into the knowledge of tides, winds and other nautical factors that existed during that period. The dry-dock at Lothal dates back to 2400 BC and is regarded as the first such facility, anywhere in the world, equipped to berth and service ships.
Vedic Age (2000 – 500 BC)
Vedic literature has numerous references to boats, ships and sea voyages. The Rig Veda is the oldest evidence on record that refers to Varuna, the Lord of the Sea, and credits him with the knowledge of the ocean routes which were used by ships. The Rig Veda mentions merchants sailing ships across the oceans to foreign countries in quest of trade and wealth. The epics Ramayana and Mahabharata have references to ships and sea travels. Even the Puranas have several stories of sea voyages.
Age of the Nandas and Mauryas (500 - 200 BC)
The Nanda and Maurya periods saw extensive maritime trade, spreading India's culture and religion to other nations, including Indonesia. Greek and Roman records, along with Megasthenes' accounts, highlight India's naval strength and administration during Chandragupta Maurya's reign. The Magadh navy is considered the world's first recorded naval force. Chanakya's Arthashastra detailed the department of waterways, naval warfare, and various types of boats used for trade and defense.
Emperor Ashoka
During the rule of Ashoka the Great, the Mauryan Empire covered almost the entire Indian subcontinent, and trade relationships existed with Sri Lanka, Egypt, Syria and Macedonia. One of the endearing legacies of Ashoka remains the spread of Buddhism. There is evidence that Ashoka's son, Mahendra, and daughter, Sanghamitra, had sailed from Tamralipti in West Bengal to Ceylon carrying a sapling of the holy Banyan tree as a gift, for spread of Buddhism. Ashoka also sent envoys to various kingdoms in Southeast Asia using the sea route.
Satavahana Dynasty (200 BC - 220 AD)
The Satavahanas (200 BC - 220 AD) ruled the Deccan region and their kingdom spread over parts of present-day Karnataka, Madhya Pradesh, Chhattisgarh and Saurashtra in Gujarat. They controlled the East coast of India, along the Bay of Bengal and had healthy trade with the Roman Empire. The Satavahanas were the first native Indian rulers to issue their own coins with inscription of ships. Evidence also exists of spread of culture, language and Hinduism to various parts of Southeast Asia through the sea route.
Gupta Dynasty (320 - 500 AD) - The Golden Age
The Gupta Empire (320 - 550 AD), known as the 'Golden Age of India', witnessed significant prosperity, cultural growth, and scientific progress. Notable rulers like Chandra Gupta I, Samudra Gupta, and Chandra Gupta II expanded the empire and its influence. Chinese monk Fa-Hien, who visited India in 399 CE, and later Huein Tsang, recorded accounts of the flourishing trade, Buddhism, and advanced oceanic navigation of the time. This era also saw remarkable achievements in astronomy by scholars like Aryabhata and Varahamihira, with accurate celestial mapping and revived maritime trade connecting India to Europe, Africa, and Southeast Asia.
The Southern Dynasties
The Cholas, Cheras, and Pandyas were powerful peninsular Indian dynasties with strong maritime trade links to Sumatra, Java, the Malay Peninsula, and China. The Cholas (3rd–13th Century) built harbours, shipyards, and lighthouses, while mastering monsoon winds for sea voyages. The Sri Vijaya Empire (5th–12th Century) connected India to Southeast Asia, attracting merchants from India, Arabia, and China. Naval conflicts between the Cholas, Tamil kings, and Sri Vijayas in the 10th Century weakened these empires, leading to Arab dominance. The Pandyas (6th–16th Century) were expert sailors and pearl traders, with links from Rome to China.
The Cheras (12th Century) had a flourishing trade with the Greeks and the Romans. They navigated through various rivers which opened into the Arabian Sea. They used monsoon winds to sail their ships directly from the Indian ports of Tyndis (present day Periyapattanum, near Kochi) and Muziris (present day Pattanam, also near Kochi), to ports in Arabia.
The Vijaynagar (1336 - 1646 AD) empire established strong links with various parts of Southeast Asia, spread India's culture and traditions. This influence is visible even today in Southeast Asia, as names of many places and people are of Indian origin. These kingdoms also helped spread both Hinduism and Buddhism, cultures and architectures in this region.
Vijaynagar Empire
Between the 13th and the 15th centuries, while most of northern India was dominated by the Delhi sultanate, most parts of southern India were controlled by the Vijaynagar Empire.
Arrival of the Arabs
By the 8th Century AD, Arabs began to come to India by sea in great numbers as traders. Over the time, many parts of the modern-day West Asia became nodal points for business between Europe, Southeast Asia and India. Soon the Arabs began controlling the trade routes, and acted as middlemen between the West and the East. The period from 900 to 1300 AD is considered the Early Age of maritime commerce in Southeast Asia.
Maritime India and the Europeans
The Mughal dynasty ruled over most of the northern India from 1526 - 1707 AD. Having found sufficient revenue from land resources, they did not pay much attention to the affairs of the sea. This enabled the Arabs to establish a monopoly over trade in the Indian Ocean. Hearing about the rich land called 'Hindustan' in the East, many European countries felt the need to find a direct sea route for trade. The Portuguese took the lead and were the first Europeans to arrive on Indian shores.
Arrival of the Portuguese
The 16th Century marked a major shift in Indian Ocean trade, which had long flourished peacefully among coastal communities from East Africa to Southeast Asia. This changed with the arrival of Portuguese explorer Vasco da Gama, who reached Calicut in 1498, opening a new sea route from Europe to India. The Portuguese soon aimed to control Indian Ocean trade, setting up factories at Calicut, Cochin, Goa, Surat, and seizing key ports like Hormuz, Aden, and Malacca, challenging Arab dominance.
The Zamorins of Calicut, a major trading power, initially allowed Portuguese trade, but tensions rose when Vasco da Gama refused to pay customary duties. The Portuguese allied with Kochi and Cannanore, launching repeated attacks on Calicut. The Zamorins resisted for over a century with the help of their naval chiefs, the Kunjali Marakkars, who organized India's first coastal naval defense. Despite weaker ships, they effectively blocked Portuguese dominance along the Malabar Coast for 90 years. In 1510, Portuguese Governor Alfonso de Albuquerque captured Goa, establishing it as the capital of Portuguese India.
The Dutch
The Dutch East India Company, established in 1592 in Amsterdam, Netherlands, sailed their first merchant fleet that reached India in 1595. The first Dutch base in the Indian Ocean Region was established at Batavia (present day Jakarta, Indonesia). They did not challenge the Portugese and were given permission to set up a trading facility at Pulicat in 1608 which led to the formation of Dutch Coromandel. Subsequently, Dutch Surat and Dutch Bengal were established in 1616 and 1627 respectively. The Dutch conquered the forts on the Malabar Coast (present day Kerala) around 1661 and established Dutch Malabar to protect Ceylon from Portuguese invasion. Apart from textiles, the Dutch traded precious stones, indigo, silk, opium, cinnamon and pepper.
The British
The East India Company was founded in England on 31 December 1600. A ship of the company, Hector, under the command of Captain William Hawkins arrived at Surat. Captain William Hawkins brought with him a letter for Emperor Jahangir, seeking permission to trade with the Mughal dominions. The emperor granted permission for trade and also promised other trading facilities. At that time, the Portuguese were the dominant European power in India, so they did not appreciate the British arriving in India and affecting their trade.
The French
The French arrived in the Indian Ocean in 1740, establishing bases in Mauritius, Surat, and Pondicherry, later expanding to Karaikal, Yanaon, Mahe, and Chandernagore. In the 18th century, they emerged as key challengers to British dominance in India. Between 1744 and 1766, both powers clashed along India's east coast, with the British decisively defeating the French at the Battle of Wandiwash in 1760. Recognizing the importance of sea power, the British built a strong naval force to protect trade and secure their rule over India.
Maritime Prowess of the Marathas
The Marathas gave the strongest resistance to British control along the Indian coasts. Chhatrapati Shivaji Maharaj was the first to recognize the need for a powerful navy, building coastal forts like Vijaydurg and Sindhudurg and strengthening defences against the Siddis and Portuguese. Under his leadership, the Maratha navy grew to over 500 ships, holding off both the Portuguese and British for over 40 years. However, after Chhatrapati Shivaji Maharaj death in 1680, the Maratha navy gradually weakened.
The Legend of Sarkhel Kanhoji Angre
Sarkhel Kanhoji Angre became the Maratha navy's Admiral in 1699, expanding the fleet and reclaiming forts from the Siddis. After defeating them, he targeted Portuguese ships that refused to buy his naval passes, forcing the Portuguese into a peace treaty. Sarkhel Kanhoji Angre then turned to the British, clashing with them for over a decade. Though both sides suffered losses, a truce was reached in 1724, with Sarkhel Kanhoji Angre remaining undefeated at sea. After his death, the British captured Fort Gheriah in 1756, marking the decline of Maratha naval power.
Maritime India under the British Raj
The East India Company's naval arm came under the British Crown on 01 May 1830, becoming the Indian Navy, and was later renamed Her Majesty's Indian Navy in 1858. By 1863, it was split into the Bombay Marine and Bengal Marine, with coastal defence managed by the Royal Navy. In 1892, the Royal Indian Marine (RIM) was formed, handling marine surveys, lighthouse upkeep, and troop transport during World War I. After the war, its strength was reduced, and on 02 October 1934, it became the Royal Indian Navy (RIN), headquartered in Bombay. At the start of World War II, the RIN had limited strength but actively defended Indian waters, escorting ships and operating in the Middle East, Bay of Bengal, Red Sea, and Persian Gulf. The RIN also played a key role in Burmese waters after Japan’s entry into the war, participating in patrols and joint operations with courage and skill.
Maritime India Post Independence
After India's partition, the Royal Indian Navy was divided into the Indian Navy and the Pakistan Navy, with India retaining two-thirds of the assets. On 22 April 1958, Vice Admiral R.D. Katari became the first Indian Chief of Naval Staff. Following India's Republic status on 26 January 1950, the Navy dropped the "Royal" prefix and was renamed the Indian Navy. The Ashoka Lion replaced the crown on its emblem, and the Navy adopted the Vedic invocation to Lord Varuna, with the motto "Sam no Varunah," meaning "Be auspicious unto us, Oh Varunah." The inscription "Satyamev Jayate" was also added below the State Emblem.
1971 War (Maritime Prowess of Indian Navy)
The Indian Navy played a crucial role during the 1971 India-Pakistan War, which ultimately led to the creation of Bangladesh. The Navy's primary task was to blockade Pakistan's eastern and western coasts, disrupting supply lines and weakening Pakistan's maritime capabilities. The Navy's Eastern Fleet, under the command of Rear Admiral Krishnan, launched a series of strikes on Pakistan's ports, including a successful attack on the naval base at Karachi, severely damaging Pakistan's naval assets.
The Indian Navy's contribution extended beyond the blockade, providing support to the Indian Army and Air Force through naval gunfire, intelligence, and logistical support. The Indian Navy also played a key role in evacuating refugees and facilitating the movement of troops during the conflict. The operation was highly successful, contributing significantly to India's victory in the war.
Indian Navy Day is celebrated on 4th December every year to commemorate the Navy's achievements and its pivotal role in the 1971 war. This day marks the attack on the Karachi port in 1971, a defining moment in India's naval history. Navy Day is observed with various events, including parades, exhibitions, and activities showcasing the Navy's strength and capabilities, while also honoring the sacrifices and contributions of naval personnel.
IN - From Buyers Navy to Builders Navy
Over the past few decades, the Indian Navy has undergone a significant transformation from being primarily a "buyer's Navy," reliant on foreign procurement, to becoming a "builder's Navy", with increasing emphasis on indigenous construction and self-reliance. This shift has been driven by a need for strategic autonomy, enhanced defense capabilities, and the desire to foster a robust domestic defense industry.
In the early years post-independence, the Indian Navy largely relied on imports for its ships, submarines, and aircraft. However, with the realization that over-dependence on foreign suppliers posed strategic risks, India initiated efforts to develop its own defense manufacturing capabilities. Modernisation of shipyards like the Mazagon Dock Shipbuilders (Mumbai), Hindustan Shipyard (Visakhapatnam), and Garden Reach Shipbuilders & Engineers (Kolkata) marked the beginning of indigenous naval construction.
A landmark achievement was the commissioning of the INS Vikrant, India's first ever maiden Indigenous Aircraft Carrier (IAC-I), in 2022. The successful design and construction of the Vikrant was preceded by the development of advanced ships like the INS Kolkata - class destroyers, stealth frigates, and nuclear-powered submarines, such as the INS Arihant. These developments reflect the Navy's transition towards becoming a builder's Navy.
In addition to this, the Indian Navy has fostered collaborations with private defense companies and foreign partners for technology transfer, which has further bolstered indigenous production. This self-reliance in defense manufacturing has made the Indian Navy more versatile, cost-effective, and capable of designing and constructing advanced warships and submarines suited to its unique operational needs.
Thus, the Indian Navy has transformed into a formidable force with growing capabilities in indigenous naval construction, ensuring its strategic independence and reinforcing India's position as a significant maritime power in the region.
